Nostalgia

Overview

Throughout the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s, nostalgia was regarded as an undesirable state. Joannes Hofer (1968, cited by Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010) coined the term to describe a state that was experienced by Swiss mercenaries, fighting for European monarchs. The state was perceived as a neurological disorder, representing homesickness. Because this state was assumed to coincide with homesickness, nostalgia was perceived as an adverse condition. Since the 1900s, however, nostalgia has been regarded as a sentimental longing of the past (see Davis, 1979). Nevertheless, even during this century, nostalgia was sometimes regarded as a state that stifles growth, because individuals cannot relinquish the past (e.g., Peters, 1985).

Nostalgic memories and experiences, however, elicit a series of benefits. As Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, and Routledge (2006) showed, nostalgia instils a sense of social connection. Furthermore, nostalgia also evokes positive affective states and improves self esteem (see Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006).

Nevertheless, distinct forms of nostalgia can be differentiated, each of which might elicit different consequences. Stern (1992), for example, distinguished historical nostalgia, in which a distant past is perceived as preferable to the present, and personal nostalgia, which refers to wistful memories of the past. Most research now is confined to the benefits of personal nostalgia (e.g., Batcho, 1998).

Benefits of nostalgia

Interestingly, after individuals recall a nostalgic experience--an event in the past that is regarded as meaningful, sentimental, often with a tinge of loss about some family member, romantic partner, possessions, pets, friends, music, or school with an awareness that history is irreversible (Batcho, DaRin, Nave, & Yaworsky, 2008; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006)--they feel more trusting and confident (Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006). Nostalgic experiences usually include both desirable and undesirable facets, typically involving another person. These experiences create vivid images, which incite positive feelings, in turn fostering a sense of trust and confidence. In particular, individuals feel less worried they might be rejected or excluded by their colleagues.

Correlates of nostalgia

As Batcho (1998) showed, individuals who report frequent experiences of nostalgia also perceive themselves as more emotional. That is, their emotions tend to be more intense. In addition, they prefer activities with other people, consistent with the possibility that nostalgia fosters a sense of social connection. Finally, individuals who often experience nostalgia also experience a need for achievement.

Mechanisms that underpin the effects of nostalgia

An indirect strategy to reinforce social connections

Nostalgia is sometimes conceptualized as a process that instills a sense of social connection. That is, after individuals experience a state of nostalgia, their need to belong is satisfied. They feel their sense of social connection is reinforced. As a consequence, the benefits of these connections are evoked; loneliness diminishes and wellbeing improves.

In particular, when their relationships with other people or groups deteriorate, individuals feel the need to restore these connections. Sometimes, they engage in direct strategies (cf., Gardner, Pickett, & Knowles, 2005), such as establishing other relationships or repairing damaged friendships. Alternatively, they engaged in indirect strategies (cf., Gardner, Pickett, & Knowles, 2005), forming representations of hypothetical relationships.

To illustrate an indirect strategy, in one study, some participants were asked to write about rejection. Other participants were asked to write about acceptance. Next, participants completed a lexical decision task, in which they were asked to decide whether or not strings of letters were legitimate words. This task was intended to ascertain the accessibility of words that relate to membership of groups. Compared to the other participants, the individuals who wrote about rejection rapidly recognized words that relate to membership of groups. Thus, when the deterioration of relationships is salient, individuals strive to direct their attention to representations of solid connections (Knowles & Gardner, 2008).

According to Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, and Routledge (2006), nostalgia might also represent an indirect strategy to reinforce social relationships. That is, nostalgia might increase the accessibility of memories and other representations of positive connections (see Baldwin, Keelan, Fehr, Enns, & Koh-Rangarajoo, 1996).

Consistent with this proposition, Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, and Routledge (2006) asked participants to describe the memories that nostalgic experiences evoke. Most of these narratives alluded to social contexts, emphasizing close and positive relationships with other people. Furthermore, these researchers showed that loneliness was positively associated with these nostalgic memories of close relationships; this finding suggests that nostalgia might curb the social isolation that corresponds to loneliness. Finally, this research showed that nostalgic memories promoted a sense of social connection (see also Zhou, Sedikides, Wildschut, & Gao, 2008).

Identity formation

According to Batcho, DaRin, Nave, and Yaworsky (2008), nostalgia might facilitate the formation of self identity (for a similar perspective, see Hertz, 1990). In particular, throughout their lives, individuals need to develop their perception of themselves: their values, skills, roles, and inclinations, for example. To develop this identity, individuals need to define themselves in reference to other people as well as unearth a sense of continuity or stability. Nostalgia might facilitate both of these needs.

To illustrate, as Batcho, DaRin, Nave, and Yaworsky (2008) emphasized, song lyrics that seem nostalgic comprise these two facets. Lyrics might refer to how friends, partners, or family are germane to identity. Other lyrics might refer to how individuals maintain their values or practices despite some upheaval or difficulty. Consistent with this perspective, when individuals report they are striving to understand or define their identity, they are more likely to perceive song lyrics as nostalgic, evoking wistful memories of their past (Batcho, DaRin, Nave, & Yaworsky, 2008).

Specifically, in this study, participants completed measures that assess the degree to which they experience nostalgia--both wistful memories of the past, called personal nostalgia, or a sense the past was preferable to the present, called historical nostalgia. Next, they completed a measure that assesses the degree to which they are exploring their identity, called the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire. Some of the questions assessed the extent to which individuals have explored other political orientations, religions, preferences for partners, preferences for friends, and so forth. Other questions assess the degree to which individuals feel committed to their existing beliefs and attitudes instead. Furthermore, identity style--which represents the extent to which individuals consider the perspective of other people or focus on their own thoughts when they develop their identity.

Next, participants read various sets of lyrics about childhood. Some of the lyrics referred to a wistful sense of missing some facet of childhood. Furthermore, some of the lyrics referred to a sense of social connection. Finally, some of the lyrics referred to a sense of identity. Participants evaluated the extent to which they felt happy, sad, nostalgic and meaningful when they read the lyrics. They also specified whether they identified with the lyrics and liked these words.

Interestingly, individuals who were exploring their identity were more likely to perceive these lyrics as nostalgic. Furthermore, participants who reported elevated levels of wistful nostalgia were more inclined to like lyrics that referred to social connections and more likely to consider the perspectives of other people when developing their identity. These findings align with the proposition that establishing social connections to clarify personal identity might represent a key function of nostalgia.

Similarly, Routledge, Arndt, Sedikides, and Wildschut (2008) also showed that nostalgia imbues life with a sense of meaning and continuity (see Terror management theory). That is, usually, after individuals contemplate their mortality, life seems meaningless. Nevertheless, nostalgic reflections diminish this effect. Presumably, these nostalgic memories highlight meaningful events, instilling an enduring sense of purpose.

Vivid imagery

According to Leboe and Ansons (2006), nostalgic memories tend to be vivid. Because these images are vivid, they are processed fluently. This fluency has been shown to bias memories (see process fluency): That is, the memories are, sometimes incorrectly, perceived as positive and favorable.

To assess this proposition, in one study conducted by Leboe and Ansons (2006), participants were asked to form images of various nouns, such as "cat". Later, these nouns as well as other nouns were then presented in sequence, alongside a pleasant word, like "pretty", or an unpleasant word, like "murder". Participants later had to decide whether these nouns had been paired with pleasant or unpleasant words. If these nouns had earlier been imagined vividly, participants would often erroneously assume the item had coincided with a pleasant word. The vivid imagery seemed to bias associations with the noun.

Factors that moderate the benefits of nostalgia

Attachment style

Nostalgia tends to evoke a sense of social connection. This benefit of nostalgia, however, is not as pronounced in individuals who report an avoidant attachment. In particular, avoidant attachment represents an aversion towards intimacy and closeness in relationships, especially during stressful contexts (see Attachment theory). According to Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, and Cordaro (2010), this style is associated with an assumption that other individuals will be unsupportive and unresponsive. In people who report avoidant attachment, nostalgia will evoke memories of close relationships, eliciting a sense of discomfort and distrust. This distrust then translates to a sense of social exclusion rather than connection.

To illustrate, in one study, conducted by Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, and Cordaro (2010), participants first completed a measure of attachment style: the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships Scale. Next, participants specified the contexts in which they tend to experience nostalgia. Some, but not all, the answers revolved around loneliness. However, individuals who reported an avoidant attachment were less likely to allude to loneliness.

In the next study, participants completed the measure of attachment style, a comprehensive measure of loneliness, as well as some items that gauge the frequency with which they experience nostalgic states. If individuals experienced loneliness--in particular, a feeling of isolation from people who really care--nostalgia was more likely to be evoked. This relationship, however, dissipated in participants who report elevated levels of avoidance attachment (Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010).

In the third study, some participants received contrived feedback, predicting they are likely to maintain few friendships later in life, intended to compromise the perceived stability of their relationships (cf., Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & Stucke, 2001). Other participants did not receive this upsetting feedback. Next, participants answered questions that determine the extent to which they experience nostalgic feelings right now. An immediate sense of social exclusion evoked feelings of nostalgia, but only if avoidant attachment was sufficiently low (Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010).

During the final two studies, some participants reflected upon a nostalgic event; other participants did not reflect upon a nostalgic event. Subsequently, they completed measures of social connection, epitomized by items like "Thinking about this event makes me feel loved". They also completed measures of self esteem and affect in one study and perceived social competence--that is, their perceived capacity to help upset people--in another study. Nostalgia enhanced feelings of social connection, social competence, self esteem, and positive affect, without significantly affecting negative affect. The association between nostalgia and social connection or social competence, however, diminished as avoidant attachment increased (Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010).

Measures of nostalgia

Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, and Cordaro (2010) developed two items to assess the extent to which individuals generally experience nostalgic states. One question was "Generally speaking, how often do you bring to mind nostalgic experiences". The response options ranged from very rarely to very frequently. The second question was similar, but the response options ranged from at least once a day to once or twice a year (for another measure, see Batcho, 1995).

Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, and Routledge (2006) developed three items that evaluate the degree to which individuals are currently experiencing nostalgia. An example of an item is "Right now, I am feeling quite nostalgic". Internal alpha reliability was .98.

Holbrook and Schindler (1991) constructed a measure of historical nostalgia, reflecting the extent to which individuals felt the historical past was preferable to the present. Cronbach's alpha is approximately .77 (Holbrook & Schindler, 1994).

Implications

Nostalgia is also a key facet of activity reminiscence therapy (see Yamagami, Oosawa, Ito, & Yamaguchi, 2007), a therapy that is sometimes utilized to treat Alzheimers disease. Typically, participants might first watch a video of tools they used when they were younger, such as old games or kitchen implements. Participants then show staff how to use the tools--a reversal of traditional roles. In one study, after this nostalgic experience, performance on the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised improved (Yamagami, Oosawa, Ito, & Yamaguchi, 2007). Furthermore, during subsequent discussions, the participants seemed to interact and communicate more effectively. Presumably, these nostalgic memories might instill a sense of self worth.

When individuals reminisce about tools they used when they were young, a sense of nostalgia tends to be ignited. Indeed, as Schindler and Holbrook (2003) showed, any artifacts that individuals associate with their youth, including songs or cars, is especially likely to evoke nostalgic feelings of attachment.

Indeed, when designers need to decide upon the best style, design, or fashion, they should first identify the most common age of their potential or targeted customers. They should then consider the style, design, or fashion these individuals would have regularly observed while they were a teenager or young adult. For example, a car company might want to attract males who are approximately 50 years of age. They should create a design that resembles a style that was most popular about 30 years ago--when these males were approximately 20.

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Created by Dr Simon Moss on 15/04/2010

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