Implicit association test

Overview and purpose

To assess attitudes, self esteem, personality, and many other characteristics of individuals, participants are often asked to answer a series of questions about themselves, such as "I often feel like a failure". Usually, the purpose of these procedures, called self report tests or explicit measures, are transparent.

Two issues compromise the validity and utility of these explicit measures. First, individuals are sometimes oblivious to their characteristics, unable to access this information from memory (Grum & von Collani, 2007). Second, participants often distort their responses, often to appear more desirable (Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998). The implicit association test is a paradigm that is used to circumvent these problems.

Description

The implicit association test (Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998), sometimes called the IAT, is often used to assess traits, such as prejudice, self esteem (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000;;; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), and personality, while ensuring that participants are oblivious to the purpose of this procedure. To illustrate, suppose that participants are instructed to press one button, perhaps the letter Q on a keyboard, whenever a word that corresponds to themselves, such as their name, gender, zodiac sign, and month in which they were born, appear. They are instructed to press another button, such as the P on a keyboard, whenever a word that does not correspond to themselves, such as a different name, gender, and so forth, is presented.

In addition, participants might be asked to press the letter Q when a word that is synonymous with conscientious behavior, such as diligence, appears, and to press the letter P when a word that is synonymous with negligent behavior, such as laziness, appears. In other words, in these trials, the same button represents both the self and conscientious behavior. Individuals who are conscientious-and thus associate the self with conscientious traits-are assumed to complete this task effectively, committing few errors and responding rapidly.

On other trials, the buttons that correspond to these traits are reversed. The letter P might correspond to conscientious behavior and the letter Q might correspond to negligent behavior. In these trials, the same button represents both the self and negligent behavior. Individuals who are not conscientious are assumed to perform more effectively in this condition. The difference in performance across the two conditions is assumed to reflect the extent to which individuals are conscientious (Steffens, 2004).

The implicit association test is used to characterize attitudes and personality. The procedure has been applied in a range of domains, including neuropsychology (Phelps, O'Connor Cunningham, Funayama, Gatenby & Gore, et al. (2000), clinical psychology (Teachman, Gregg, & Woody, 2001), social psychology (McConnell & Leibold, 2001), and motivation (Brunstein & Schmitt, 2004).

Empirical evidence

A plethora of studies have explored, and usually validated, the utility of this procedure. The implicit association test has been validated by contrasting established groups, such as phobic patients versus control participants (Teachman, Gregg, & Woody, 2001). The test has been used to predict behavior, such as acts of discrimination (McConnell & Leibold, 2001). A modified scoring algorithm, developed by Greenwald, Nosek, and Banaji (2003) augments the validity of this procedure.

Generally, correlations between implicit and explicit measures of some trait are small to moderate. Correlations between implicit measures of the five broad personality traits-extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness-and their explicit counterparts, as derived from the NEO-FFI ranged from .18 to .41, as demonstrated by Grum and von Collani (2007). Other studies have also uncovered moderate correlations (e.g., Steffens & Buchner, 2003)

More importantly, several studies imply that implicit association tests seem to be relatively impervious to distortion. Asendorpf, Banse, and Mucke (2002) showed implicit association tests identified participants who were shy, even when they were instructed to conceal this trait. The implicit association test can also identify prejudices even when participants were instructed to conceal these attitudes (e.g., Kim, 2003). Steffens (2004), however, showed that faking can distort responses to some extent, but implicit tests are less susceptible to this problems that are explicit tests, even after practice.

Controversies

One criticism of the IAT is that individuals might focus attention only on the desirability of items. For instance, rather than evaluate whether a term reflects conscientious behavior, they might ascertain whether an item is desirable. Individuals who perceive themselves favorably, often designated as a high implicit self esteem (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000), will perform the task more effectively if words that relate to themselves and conscientious, and thus desirable, behavior correspond to the same button-even if they are not conscientious. The profile of performance on the implicit association test might largely reflect self esteem not specific traits (Steffens, 2004). Nevertheless, contrary to this proposition, Grum and von Collani (2007) showed that implicit and explicit measures of personality were correlated even after implicit self esteem was controlled.

Susceptibility to distortion

Initially, many researchers contended that individuals could not distort their responses to implicit association tests (e.g., Egloff & Schmukle, 2002;;; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). That is, individuals could not deliberately depict themselves positively. Nevertheless, researchers subsequently began to question this assumption (e.g., Fiedler & Bluemke, 2005;;; McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, & Frankel, 2009;;; Steffens, 2004).

In a key study, Fiedler and Bluemke (2005) showed that participants could depict themselves positively, particularly after they received instructions on how to manipulate the response on the implicit association test. Even without these instructions, participants could distort their responses, provided they had earlier practiced this test (Fiedler & Bluemke, 2005).

Steffens (2004) also showed that participants could distort their responses. In this study, the implicit association test was used to assess the personality of individuals--conscientiousness and extraversion. Participants first completed this test to assess the extent to which they are conscientious or extraverted. Next, participants were informed that both conscientiousness and extraversion are desirable traits--and they should attempt to demonstrate these qualities when they next complete the test.

After they were encouraged to distort their responses, participants tended to depict themselves as more extraverted. The degree to which they portrayed themselves as conscientious did not change significantly. This finding indicates that faking might be possible for some, but not all, personality traits (Steffens, 2004).

McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, and Frankel (2009), however, underscored a limitation with this study: Participants were always instructed to distort their responses after the baseline condition, in which faking was not encouraged. Previous exposure to the test, and the instruction to fake, might have affected the responses of individuals.

To override this limitation, McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, and Frankel (2009) replicated the study, except half of the participants were encouraged to distort their responses first and then answer accurately afterwards rather than vice versa. McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, and Frankel (2009) again showed that participants could inflate the extent to which they were extraverted but not conscientious.

Specifically, this distortion was especially pronounced if participants had already been exposed to the test before the instructions to fake were presented. Nevertheless, even if they had not been exposed to the test, participants could still inflate the degree to which they were extraverted (McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, & Frankel, 2009).

These findings do not clarify why extraversion, but not conscientiousness, could be distorted. McDaniel, Beier, Perkins, Goggin, and Frankel (2009) suggested that extraversion might be more salient than conscientiousness--an issue that awaits investigation.

Capacity to predict discriminatory behavior

Some studies have challenged the utility of the Implicit Association Test to predict discriminatory behavior (e.g., Blanton, Jaccard, Klick, Mellers, Mitchell, & Tetlock, 2009). Blanton, Jaccard, Klick, Mellers, Mitchell, and Tetlock (2009) challenged studies, such as work published by McConnell and Leibold (2001) and Ziegert and Hanges (2005), that had validated the use of this test for these purposes.

Specifically, a reanalysis of the findings uncovered by McConnell and Leibold (2001) showed that individuals who demonstrated a bias against black individuals, as gauged by the Implicit Association Test, showed less discrimination towards a black, relate to a white, experimenter. These conclusions were reached when the data were not transformed and outliers were removed. Nevertheless, in a subsequent report, McConnell and Leibold (2009), challenge these reinterpretations.

Other benefits of the IAT

Modification of attitudes

Typically, the IAT is used to assess the attitudes of individuals implicitly. Nevertheless, the IAT has been also been used to modify the attitudes of individuals. The IAT, for example, can shape the implicit self esteem of individuals or influence attitudes towards candy, as measured implicitly (Ebert, Steffens, von Stulpnagel, & Jelenec, 2009).

To illustrate, in a study conducted by Ebert, Steffens, von Stulpnagel, and Jelenec ( 2009), participants undertook a revised version of the IAT. In particular, for some participants, one button was always assigned to both positive words, like pleasant, and words that represent the self, like I, me, or self. The other button was always assigned to both negative words, like bad, and words that represent other individuals, such as others, you, and those. For other participants, one button was always assigned to positive words and words that represent other individuals;;; the second button was always assigned to negative words and words that represent the self.

Following this procedure, participants completed other tasks, intended to gauge their self esteem implicitly. They completed a go-no go task, for example (Nosek & Banaji, 2001). A series of words appeared on a screen. Participants were asked to press a button, but only if the word corresponded to the self and positive stimuli. Alternatively, they were asked to press a button, but only if the word corresponded to the self and negative stimuli. If performance is better when both self and positive words correspond to the response, implicit self esteem is assumed to be higher.

As Ebert, Steffens, von Stulpnagel, and Jelenec (2009) showed, implicit self esteem was higher if both self and positive words were assigned to the same button during the IAT task. This finding implies the IAT task can modify implicit attitudes towards the self. A subsequent study, using an analogous procedure, showed that attitudes towards candy bars could also be changed by the IAT.

References

Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mucke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380-393.

Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., Klick, J., Mellers, B., Mitchell, G., & Tetlock, P. E. (2009). Strong claims and weak evidence: Reassessing the predictive validity of the IAT. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 567-582.

Brunstein, J. C., & Schmitt, C. H. (2004). Assessing individual differences in achievement motivation with the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 536-555.

Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., Jr., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631-643.

Ebert, I. A., Steffens, M. C., von Stulpnagel, R., & Jelenec, P. (2009). How to like yourself better, or chocolate less: Changing implicit attitudes with one IAT task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1098-1104.

Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1441-1455.

Farnham, S. D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). Implicit self-esteem. In D. A brains, & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 230-248). London: Blackwell.

Fiedler, K., & Bluemke, M. (2005). Faking the IAT: Aided and unaided response control on the implicit association tests. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 307-316.

Gibson, B. (2008). Can evaluative conditioning change attitudes toward mature brands? New evidence from the implicit association test. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 178-188.

Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.

Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.

Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.

Grum, M., & von Collani, G. (2007). Measuring Big-Five personality dimensions with the implicit association test-Implicit personality traits or self-esteem? Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 2205-2217.

Kim, D. Y. (2003). Voluntary controllability of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 83-96.

Lane, K. A., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2007). Understanding and using the implicit association test: IV. What we know (so far) about the method. In B. Wittenbrink & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit measures of attitudes (pp. 59-102). New York: Guilford.

McConnell,A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442.

McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2009). Weak criticisms and selective evidence: Reply to Blanton et al. (2009). Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 583-589.

McDaniel, M. J., Beier, M. E., Perkins, A. W., Goggin, S., & Frankel, B. (2009). An assessment of the fakeability of self-report and implicit personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 686-690.

Mitchell, C. J., Anderson, N. E., & Lovibond, P. F. (2003). Measuring evaluative conditioning using the implicit association test. Learning and Motivation, 34, 203-217.

Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The Go/No-go association task. Social Cognition, 19, 625-666.

Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 166-180.

Phelps, E. A., O'Connor. K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., & Gore, J. C. et al. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738

Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2004). Underlying processes in the implicit association test (IAT): Dissociating salience from associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 139-165.

Rudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., & McGhee, D. E. (2001). Implicit self-concept and evaluative implicit gender stereotypes: Self and ingroup share desirable traits. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1164-1178.

Steffens, M. C. (2004). Is the Implicit Association Test immune to faking? Experimental Psychology, 51, 165-179.

Steffens, M. C., & Buchner, A. (2003). Implicit Association Test: Separating transsituationally stable and variable components of attitudes toward gay men. Experimental Psychology, 50, 33-48.

Steffens, M. C., Kirschbaum, M., & Glados, P. (2008). Avoiding stimulus confounds in implicit association tests by using the concepts as stimuli. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 217-243.

Teachman, B. A., Gregg, A. P., & Woody, S. R. (2001). Implicit associations for fear-relevant stimuli among individuals with snake and spider fears. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 226-235.

Ziegert, J. C., & Hanges, P. J. (2005). Employment discrimination: The role of implicit attitudes, motivation, and a climate for racial bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 553-562.

Created by Dr Simon Moss on 18/10/2008

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